Published: 04.12.2023 Author: Mira Reuter

Abstract

Background: Acupuncture in the tradition of Chinese medicine has gained more attention in the West, both in its practical application as well as in terms of scientific studies on its effects on the human body. The same applies to fascia and its scientific investigations and applications in sports- and health-related areas. Acupuncture has a great potential to help people heal different diseases. Especially with an ageing society it is of more interest to understand the mechanisms of such a promising treatment. The following studies have investigated the role of fascia in acupuncture and the extent to which they are related to each other.

Results: The studies presented in this paper show, that the fascial system and meridian system follow the same patterns throughout the body and the acupuncture points along the meridians match thicker areas in the fascial tissues. Therefore, the needle that is inserted into acupuncture points automatically stimulates the fascia. The stimulated fascia was observed to arrange itself in spiral patterns around the inserted needle. As a result of this in science called “needle grasp phenomenon” and in traditional Chinese medicine named “de qi” sensation, electrical signals are transmitted by the fascia. Various studies point out the parallels in the functions of the meridian system and of the fascial system within the body.

Conclusion:  Many researches come to the conclusion that the fascial system might be the western name and equivalent to the meridian system of traditional Chinese medicine. In terms of this paper it can be stated, that the fascial system plays a crucial role in the application and success of acupuncture treatments.

1 Introduction

Acupuncture of traditional Chinese medicine (=TCM) as well as fascia manipulation techniques are known to help many people not only with muscular skeletal problems, but different kind of diseases. The meridian system as well as the fascial system in the body are complex systems who could lead to healing within the body when stimulated in a specific way. Despite this promising effects of fascia stimulation, in-depth scientific investigations on fascia has only been conducted since the late 20^th and early 21st centuries. Before, in most medical schools it was still taught that the function of fascia as connective tissue was only to hold the muscles in place and to protect the muscles and was not studied in detail at most medical schools (Stecco, Macchi, Porzionato, Duparc & De Caro, 2011). Now, that research on fascia has deepened due to advances in imaging techniques (ultrasound, MRI) and promote more detailed visualizations of fascial structures, it is know that there are not only multiple different types of fascia in the body, but also many different bodily functions to which the fascia is related to (Bordoni & Zarnier, 2014; Grilley, 2012; Stecco, 2014). The current research of fascia explores the biomechanical, physiological and clinical implications of fascia especially in pain management and movement therapies (Sterling, 2018). While the knowledge of fascia has deepened only since the last decades in the western world, traditional Chinese medicine has been developed a precise knowledge of how to stimulate the meridians and therefore fascia for centuries (Grilley, 2012). Unfortunately, during a very dark time around 800 BC the wisdom of traditional Chinese medicine was abundant, TCM schools were closed and libraries were burned down  (Grilley, 2012). The ancient theories of TCM that survived nonetheless and are practiced since then in China and in the last decades increasingly in the West as well,  became therefore more of interest for the modern science (Grilley, 2012,). It can be concluded that both, fascia research and the research on acupuncture is still in their beginnings and becomes more and more of interest for the western, modern science. This seminar paper has the aim to summarize research on the topic of how the modern research of fascia is related to the ancient practice of acupuncture.

1.1 Fascia

A general definition of fascia, according to Stecco, Macchi, Porzionato, Duprac and De Caro, is that fascia is a fibrous connective tissue considered in a three dimensional continuity throughout the body, surrounding and supporting muscles, organs and other anatomical structures and therefore providing structural integrity and functionality of the musculoskeletal system, enabling movements of the body and communication within the body (Gatt, Agarwal, Zito, 2023; Stecco et al., 2011). The different types of fascia can be differentiated as superficial fascia, deep fascia, visceral fascia and parietal fascia (Gatt et al., 2023). For the purpose of this paper the superficial fascia and the deep fascia are of interested, since these are the fascia which can be penetrated by the acupuncture needles (Langevin & Yandow; 2002). The superficial fascia is located underneath the skin, retinacula and fat lobules and can be found throughout the entire body (Stecco et al., 2011). In some parts of the superficial facia are muscular fibers located (for example in the neck and face) (Stecco et al., 2011). The arrangement and thickness of the superficial fascia (as well as the superficial and deep adipose layers) varies according to gender, body region and body surface (Stecco et al., 2011). The form of the superficial fascia is made up of membranous layers with loosely packed interwoven collagen and elastic fibers (Gatt, Agarwal, Zito, 2023). The functions of the superficialfascia contain the nourishment and the preserving of the integrity of the skin and the support of the veins and subcutaneous structures (Stecco et al., 2011). Moreover, it enhances mobility and flexibility by enabling the skin to glide over underlying structures (Langevin, Fox, Koptiuch, Badger, Greenan-Naumann, Bouffard, Konofagou, Lee, Triano, & Henry, 2011; Sterling, 2018). The many nerve endings in the superficial fascia are transmitting sensory information to other body parts and therefore enable communication within the body (Langevin et al. 2011; Stecco et al., 2011). The deep fascia consists of a fibrous membrane and is located underneath the skin, a layer of fat lobules and retinacula, the superficial fascia and another layer of fat lobules and retinacula (Stecco et al., 2011). The deep fascia of the limbs has a mean thickness of 1mm (Stecco et al., 2011). It interconnects muscles, bones, vessels and nerves in the body (Stecco, 2014). The deep fascia is only connected through myofascial expansion with the muscles, which can especially be seen around the joints (Stecco et al., 2011). The deep fascia of the limbs consists of two to three layers of collagen fiber bundles, which are separated from each other through thin layers of loose connective tissue (Stecco et al., 2011). Stecco et al. conclude that due to this structure and seen from a mechanical point of view, “each layer may be considered independent and has a specific influence on the function of the tissue” (Stecco et al., 2011, p. 131).  When these layers are exercised in different directions, they still contain a strong resistance to traction (Natali, Pavan & Stecco, 2010).  The function of the deep fascia differentiates in different body parts (Stecco et al., 2011). Some of the key functions of the complex network of deep fascia in general are compartmentalization of muscle groups, separation of muscles, as well as providence of support and facilitation of their optimal functioning (Stecco 2014). It binds all the structures of muscles, vessels and nerves together into a compact cluster and therefore takes care of containment of bodily structures (Stecco et al., 2011). Thereby, the deep fascia functions as a protective barrier around muscles, nerves and blood vessels to protect them from external forces and possible injuries (Stecco 2014). Moreover, the deep fascia plays an important role in transmitting mechanical forces, which are generated during muscle contractions and thus acts as a medium for force transfer between muscles and other structures of the body to coordinate the movements of the body (Langevin et al., 2011; Matsumoto & Birch, 1988; Stecco et al., 2011). Another function is the neurovascular transport, meaning the provision of a framework for nerves, ensuring their proper positioning and enabling the transport of signals and nutrients within the body (Stecco, 2014). Additionally, the structure of different layers of collagen fiber bundles within the deep fascia, enables the multiple layers to slide and glide over each other and therefore promotes the flexibility and adaptability of muscles and their surrounding structures (Stecco et al., 2011). The fascial gliding itself is therefore crucial for the maintenance of the musculoskeletal function and overall mobility (Langevin et al., 2011; Sterling, 2018). Oschman gets to the heart of the matter by saying: “[t]his matrix determines the overall shape of the organism as well as the detailed architecture of its parts. All movements of the body as a whole, or its smallest parts, are created by tension carried through the connective tissue fabric.” (Oschman, James, L. cited in: Matsumoto & Birch, 1988, p.164). To summarize it can be said that the multifaceted functions of the superficial and deep fascia have an integral role in the stability, protection and dynamic movement of the musculoskeletal system and the communication within the body through mechanical, biochemical and bioelectric signaling.

1.2 Acupuncture

Acupuncture is a traditional Chinese medical practice that involves the insertion of thin needles into specific locations of the body, named acupuncture points (Langevin & Yandow, 2002).  According to Chinese view, a network of multiple energy pathways, known as Meridians, run longitudinally along the entire body (Langevin & Yandow, 2002). The 14 main lines of the meridians contain 361 acupuncture points that can be accessed through the insertion of needles. The names of the meridians are due to their functional areas in the internal organs and body (for example stomach meridian, heart meridian or lung meridian). The meridians are thought to function as channels, in which the Qi flows in (Langevin, Yandow, 2002). Since Qi is very difficult to translate from the Chinese language, many authors state, that there is no western equivalent to the name of Qi. Chinese language is a sign language and Qi has the signs of a rice corn, which is stewed. Similar to an uncooked rice corn that remains indigestible to humans and consequently cannot provide energy to the digestive system, Qi must circulate to impart energy to the body's system. If there is a blockage of Qi, the energy is not flowing anymore and in traditional Chinese medicine this is associated with disease (Langevin & Yandow, 2002). Other authors translate Qi with more than one word, to explain the actual meaning, such as dynamic processes in movement and communication or energy exchange (Langevin & Yandow, 2002). Grilley states, that scientists cannot measure Qi directly and therefore measure electrical and chemical changes in the body and that Qi is the energy force that is responsible for the manifestation of these electrical and chemical changes (Grilley, 2012). If there is a blockage or disruption of the meridian channel network, and therefore disease in the system, accessing the right acupuncture points (dependent on which disease has to be treated) is supposed to access the meridian channels (in which the Qi flows) and to help harmonize the Yin and Yang within the body and system (Langevin & Yandow, 2002). According to TCM all diseases can result from a disbalance of Yin and Yang and can therefore be healed by harmonizing the Yin and Yang energies in the body (for example through acupuncture) (Duffy, 2019; Grilley, 2012).

2 Connection between fascia and acupuncture

The superficial and deep fascia, as well es the epimsium (surrounding the muscles) can be penetrated by the acupuncture needles. Which parts of the fascia are exactly stimulated by the needle depends on the acupuncture point as well as the depths of the inserted needle. The acupuncture points are located along fascial planes between muscle and bone or tendon or between muscles (Langevin & Yandow, 2002). If an acupuncture needle is inserted at the site of a connective tissue cleavage plane, it will initially pass through the dermis and subcutaneous tissue before delving into the deep fascia (Langevin & Yandow, 2002). If a needle is inserted away from the connective tissue plane, it will insert through the dermis and subcutaneous tissue before reaching a bone or muscle (Langevin & Yandow, 2002). In the following chapter the role of the fascia in acupuncture is discussed, by explaining different similarities and connections between the fascial system and the meridian system of TCM in the body as well as the effects of acupuncture on the fascia.

2.1 Fascia and meridian alignment in the body

Many different studies point out, that the meridian network is anatomically aligned with the fascia planes in the human body (Bai, Wang, Wu, Dai, Sha, Yew, Yuan & Liang, 2011; Finando & Finando, 2011; Langevin & Yandow, 2002; Stecco, 2020). Finando and Finando emphasize, that the needle insertion of acupuncture has an effect on the fascia on every point of the body and that the acupuncture point on the meridian lines and the fascial planes follow a very similar pattern (Finando & Finando, 2011). The anatomical correlation of the meridian lines and fascial planes can easily be seen by mapping them together (Bai et al., 2011, Finando & Finando, 2011; Langevin & Yandow, 2002; Stecco, 2014). Bai, Wang, Wu, Dai, Sha, Yew, Yuan and Liang for example, compared the locations of the triple energizer meridian of hand-shaoyang and the acupuncture points on that meridian (Tianjing, Sanyangluo, Yangchi and Guanchong), as well as the the large intestine meridian of hand-yangming and the acupuncture points placed on it (Quchi, Pianli, Hegu and Shangyang) with a reconstruction of the fascia pathways in the arm (Bai et al., 2011). All the named acupuncture points on the two meridians are placed along the outside of the underarm and on the top of the index finger (large intestine meridian of hand-yangming) and ring finger (triple energizer meridian of hand-shaoyang) (Bai et al., 2011). Scan data of the fascial connective tissue of the human arm matched the location of these meridians and their acupuncture points (Bai et al., 2011). Similar comparisons were done for other body parts and by different authors in multiple studies (Finando & Finando 2011; Stecco, 2014) and all results indicate that the anatomy of the fascia network is consistent with the meridian network pattern according to TCM (Bai et al. 2011, Finando & Finando 2011; Langevin & Yandow, 2002; Stecco, 2014). Furthermore, in 3D fascial reconstructive studies with computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of living human bodies, the fascia showed line- like structures which are similar, not only in their position within the body but also concerning their form, to the structures of the acupuncture points and meridians (Bai et al., 2011). Langevin and Yandow have tested different acupuncture points and control points (no- acupuncture points) with regard to the fascial planes surrounding their location (Langevin & Yandow, 2002). The results of their study suggest that more than 80% of the acupuncture points and 50% of the meridian intersections of the human arm seem to align with intermuscular or intramuscular fascia planes with a probability that a random point in the section would fall on a fascial plane of 0.083 (Langevin & Yandow, 2002). Their findings also show that some of the acupuncture points (also referred to as „holes“) are placed on deeper fascial layers (than others), where the acupuncture needle accesses greater amounts of the fascia when inserted (Finando & Finando, 2011; Langevin & Yandow, 2002). At those points a greater mechanical stimulus and signaling of the fascia and therefore to better therapeutic effects are given (Langevin & Yandow, 2002).

2.2 Needle grasp phenomenon

In traditional acupuncture, the needle is asserted to the body by the TCM doctor and then manipulated manually, either in form of rapid rotation (in one direction or back and forth), and/ or as pistoning (up and down motion) (Langevin & Yandow, 2002). With these methods acupuncturists want to achieve a reaction known as „de qi“ sensation in TCM (Langevin & Yandow, 2002). Patients report that this reaction to the needle feels like a temporary sensation of soreness in the area surrounding the needle insertion, while the acupuncturist describe the experience of a pull on the inserted needle (Bai et al., 2011, Langevin & , 2002). This sensation has been shown to happen when the acupuncture needle physically effects the connective tissue in the fascia and is referred to as needle grasp in modern science (Bai et al., 2011; Fox, Badger, Garra & Krag, 2001; Langevin, Churchill, Wu, Badger, Yandow, Fox & Krag, 2002). When the needle is rotated within the fascia, the connective tissue winds itself around the acupuncture needle and thereby produces a tight mechanical coupling between the connective tissue and the fascia (Langevin & Yandow, 2002). The coupling of the tissue with the needle, enables further movements of the needle (rotation or pistoning), which pulls and forms the connective tissue of the fascia and as a result transfers a mechanical signal into the tissue (Langevin & Yandow 2002). When the acupuncture needle is placed flat onto the subcutaneous tissue surface and rotated it triggers the connective tissue to follow the rotating needle for 180 degrees and after that to rotate itself further, so that it ends up in the formation of a whorl (Langevin & Yandow 2002). Due to this chain reactions, a whorl of the connective tissue around the needle can be produced with only one turn of the needle (Langevin & Yandow 2002). The biomechanical mechanism of needle grasp can be measured with the „pullout force“, the force needed to pull the needle out of the connective tissue (Langevin et al., 2001; Langevin et al., 2002). Langevin, Churchill, Wu, Badger, Yandow, Fox and Krag measured the biomechanical force (pullout force), which is created in the fascia when stimulated by needle rotation of acupuncture needles (Langevin et al., 2001). The results of their study of eight acupuncture points and eight control points in 60 human subjects states an increase in the mean pullout force of 52 percent with the application of an unidirectional and bidirectional needle rotation (by a computer-controlled acupuncture needling instrument) compared to no needle rotation (Langevin et al., 2001). Moreover the pullout force measured in their study was 18 percent higher at the measured acupuncture points than at their control points (with p<0.001). The sensation of “de qi”, also referred to as needle grasp in science, is in TCM believed to be an indication that the goal of the acupuncture has been achieved (Garra, & Krag, 2001; Langevin et al., 2002; Langevin & Yandow, 2002). With the confirmation from numerous studies that the connective tissue of the fascia is the tangible, physical element implicated in the "de qi" sensation/needle grasp phenomenon, it can be affirmed that the fascial system and its biomechanical processes play a crucial role in the outcomes of acupuncture treatments (Bai et al., 2011, Langevin et al., 2001, Langevin et al., 2002, Langevin & Yandow 2002). Langevin and Yandow conclude, that the “phenomenon of needle grasp, therefore, is at the very core of acupuncture’s theoretical construct” (Langevin & Yandow 2002, p. 259). Bai, Wang, Wu, Dai, Sha, Yew, Yuan and Liang sate, that the observation of needle grasp “indicates that the efficacy of acupuncture relies on interaction with the fascia” (Bai et al. 2011).

2.3 Functions of the meridian system and the fascial system

Several researchers conducted examinations and comparisons between the bodily functions of the traditional Chinese concept of acupuncture, Qi and meridians with the bodily functions of the fascia (Finando & Finando, 2010, Langevin & Yandow, 2002). The practice of acupuncture, which stimulates the Qi flowing through the meridians, as well as the fascial system itself have an influence on the immune function, blood circulation, temperature regulation of the body, the metabolism and digestion, the shape/ structure of the body as well as  the ability of movements of the body (Finando & Finando, 2010).  Therefore both systems can be described as metasystems of the body, which connect and affect all the other systems within the body (Finando & Finando, 2010, Langevin & Yandow, 2001). As explained in chapter 1.1, the fascial network transmits signals and thereby communicates with the whole body, for example muscles, organism, vessels and nerves (Finando & Finando, 2010). The same is said about the meridian system (Finando & Finando, 2010, Langevin & Yandow, 2001). According to TCM practice, physical dysfunctions in the body can be healed through the stimulation of the Qi in the meridians with acupuncture needles (Finando & Finando, 2010). Manipulating the fascia in therapy can induce changes in cellular physiology, consequently enabling the treatment of physical dysfunctions associated with it (Grilley, 2012; Natali et al., 2010; Stecco, 2014; Sterling, 2018). Luigi Stecco has created a therapy concept called “fascial manipulation”, which is stimulating the fascial planes to excite areas of the central nervous system through reflex pathways (Stecco, 2020). With his fascial manipulation massages he refers to the meridian system of traditional Chinese medicine and the meridians matching with the fascial planes in the body (Stecco, 2014).

2.4 The fascial system as an equivalent to the meridian system

Numerous authors assert that unraveling the scientific counterpart to Qi and the meridian system involves comprehending the chain reactions initiated when acupuncture needles stimulate the fascia (Finando & Finando, 2010). Given that both Qi and the fascia have analogous functions within the body, the fascial system might be the scientific equivalent to the meridian system of TCM (Finando & Finando, 2010, Langevin & Yandow, 2001). Grilley states that Qi, being the energy that is manifesting energies itself, cannot be directly measured (Grilley, 2012). However, the measurable aspects lie in the chemical and electrical changes induced by Qi, and they are assessable through the effects observed when acupuncture needles are inserted into the fascia (Grilley, 2012). Langevin and Yandow explain the physiological effects that can be seen due to acupuncture needling in regard to the fascial system (Langevin & Yandow, 2002). They compare the concept of TCM with their purposed anatomical/ physiological equivalents of the fascial system (Langevin & Yandow, 2002). Due to their analogy, the meridian qi has its western equivalent in the biochemical and bioelectrical signaling of the connective tissue/ fascia and a blockage of the Qi is caused by a modified connective tissue matrix composition and therefore a different biochemical and bioelectrical signal transduction (Langevin & Yandow, 2002). As explained in chapter 2.2 the “de qi” sensation at the acupuncture points can be contrasted with the needle grasp phenomenon triggered by the fascia. As a result of altered biochemical and bioelectrical signaling within the fascia and cellular activation triggered by the insertion of needles into the fascia, the restoration of signal transduction and the composition of the connective tissue matrix can occur (Langevin & Yandow, 2002). Finando and Finando reveal the similarities in function, structure and anatomical correlations of the fascial system and meridian system and conclude that “the closest parallel to qi in Western thought is a generative matrix in which all things interact with all other things through the exchange of information” (Finando & Finando, 2011, p. 172). And that generative matrix, which is communicating with the whole body by transferring signals, is called fascial system.

3 Discussion

With existing studies on fascia and its role in acupuncture, a new field has been opened that integrates Eastern traditional approaches with Western scientific standards. The current state of studies suggests that the theory and practice of acupuncture relies on the fascial system of the body. This can be explained with the anatomical alignment of the fascial system and the meridian system, the “de qi” sensation/ needle grasp phenomenon in acupuncture, as well as the similarities in their bodily functions, as referred to in the previous chapters. In traditional texts about the originally skilled palpation in order to find the acupuncture points (rather than the later used proportional measurements to find acupuncture points), the sensations are referred to as „holes“ (Finando & Finando, 2010). This description might be a hint to the thicker parts of the fascia (see chapter 2.1), which was not called fascia in the tradition of Chinese medicine, yet might be the same element, referred to with different words in TCM and in the western world (Finando & Finando, 2010). This paper had the aim to explain how fascia is related to the ancient practice of acupuncture in traditional Chinese medicine. In summary it can be stated that the fascial system has a very crucial role in the theory and practice of acupuncture by being responsible for the needle grasp phenomenon/ “de qi” sensation. This “de qi” sensation is thought to be the benchmark, if the acupuncture treatment was successful and therefore the fascia plays a very important role in the effectiveness of acupuncture. As explained in chapter 2.4 the fascia might not only be related to the success of acupuncture, but the fascial system can be assumed to be the western physiological equivalent to the meridian system of TCM. With the connection of the ancient knowledge of TCM with the findings of modern research, the understanding of different cultural practices can be deepened, and a more holistic approach of the body, health and wellbeing can be supported. Therefore, upcoming studies on the involvement of fascia in acupuncture might focus on exploring both, the parallels and distinctions of the perspective of the traditional Chinese medicine and the western approaches to health and wellbeing. Thereby previous and future studies in this field help to understand and acknowledge (in terms of western science) alternative healing methods, that can support many people in their healing journey from different symptoms and diseases.

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Perhaps someone has already said to you: "You can't have everything, it is either freedom or security", or you yourself have thought that freedom and security are opposites. I believed that for a long time. Having experienced this limiting belief, I now think about it very differently. I see freedom and security as two qualities that complement each other, that give each other meaning, and I see them as a whole and not as separate opposites. In my perception, there is no real security without the feeling of freedom, and freedom cannot be experienced without security. They belong to each other like the moon to the sun, they complement each other and yet exist in their own qualities. In the past, I have often tried to experience either an extreme degree of freedom or a high degree of security (in my relationships, at work, etc.). But neither of these qualities alone has made me completely fulfilled and happy. Now, I invite both qualities similarly into my life, as two parts of the same truth. I chose a relationship that makes me feel safe and free at the same time. I chose a job that I love and that gives me an incredible amount of freedom to work from anywhere and do exactly what I want and now I’m building in more and more security, which allows me to enjoy the freedom it offers me. I chose to move to Portugal to live by the ocean where I feel free and yet I cultivate a surrounding in Portugal and at home that makes me feel safe. I have learnt to have a relationship with myself that allows me to spread my wings while feeling safe within myself. And with that, I have invited people and relationships into my life where we support each other in our freedom and give each other the safe space we all need. I truly believe that we can have both, it's just a question of prioritising and how we implement them in our lives. I also believe that a life with an imbalance in one of the qualities is not a fulfilling life. Therefore, I like to ask myself if I need to focus more on one of the two qualities and see both as qualities that I can cultivate more and more in my life to enrich my life. To invite both qualities into our lives, we need to believe that they can co-exist and that we are worthy of having it all! So don't believe anyone who starts a sentence with "You can't". Yes, you can, it's just a matter of consciously looking at it and creating what you want for your life. Is it freedom? Is it security? Is it both at the same time? Go for what you want in your life. 

Published: 05.08.2024 Author: Mira Reuter

1  Introduction 

In the aging society we live in, by the year 2050, one in six people in the world will be over the age of 65. And with that it almost doubled one person in eleven people being older than 65 from the year 2019 (United Nations, Department of International Economic and Social Affairs, n.d.). The World Population Prospects 2022 points out that the population above 65 years is increasing at a faster rate than the population below 65 years (United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, 2022). With this higher amount of older people worldwide, diseases of cognitive decline like Alzheimer's disease, dementia and Parkinson's disease, for instance, are more common (Mercadante & Tadi, 2024). In fact, age is the biggest risk factor for Alzheimer´s disease and the most common cause of dementia in people over 65 (Gothe et al., 2019). Yoga has gained more popularity in the West in the 20th century and therefore experienced an exponential growth in the research area of health and wellbeing (Gothe et al., 2019). Various scientists have been researching effects that yoga may have on positively influencing and even reversing age-related neurodegenerative diseases as well as neuropsychological diseases by promoting the functionality and connectivity of the brain (Gothe et al., 2019; Kora et al., 2021; Krause-Sorio et al., 2022; Merlet et al., 2024; Nourollahimoghadam et al., 2021; Rivest-Gadbois & Boudrias, 2019, Verzili et al., 2023). Understanding the promising effects that a regular yoga practice may have on the brain activity, helps to build the scientific foundation for implementing yoga in treatments for various neuropsychological conditions (Gothe et al., 2019; Nourollahimoghadam et al., 2021; Krause-Sorio et al., 2022; Merlet et al., 2019). The aim of this paper is to summarize the state of the art of studies on the effect yoga has on brain activity.  

1.1  Yoga

Yoga has its origins in India with its first mentioning dating back to 2500-1000 before Christ in the Vedas, the oldest collection of scriptures in the Hindu culture (Broad, 2013). The practice of yoga has been changing over decades and can be classified into different phases (Broad, 2023). Yoga's origin consisted of religious spirituality with prayers, meditations and sacrifices (Vedic phase until 200 BCE) and later evolved to a focus on spiritual and mental health through meditation, known as the classical phase (Broad, 2013). Around 500 CE during the tantric phase of yoga conscious breath control (named pranayama in Sanskrit) was added to the practice (Broad, 2013). In the modern phase of yoga, starting around 1930, there is a strong emphasis on physical exercises (called asana in Sanskrit). This shift in yoga practice from esotericism to a focus on science and hygiene in the 1930s in India, has been strongly influenced by the Indian independence movement and NeoHinduism. With the goal to revive and modernize Hinduism as the basis for Indian national identity, yoga, with its ancient roots, was seen as a significant element in this effort (Broad, 2013). By now yoga has established itself in popular culture and is practiced globally for fitness, health and spiritual reasons. It can involve different methods of meditation, breathing exercises, specific movement exercises, chanting sounds (mantras) and kriya (sequences of postures, breathwork and sounds) (Gothe et al., 2018). During the modern phase of yoga, many different yoga styles, lineages and schools have evolved, each placing an individual emphasis on different parts of the practice.

1.2  Brain activity 

Brain activity is defined by electrical impulses, chemical signalling and metabolic processes within the brain that enable communication among neurons and the nervous system and is therefore responsible for cognitive functions (including perception, thought, emotion and behaviour) and bodily functions (Trökes & Knothe, 2014). Brain activity can be assessed with different measurement devices, each offering different types of information and varying in their applications. In the research field of yoga's effects on the brain, the most used measurement devices are magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and electroencephalography (EEG).

2      Effect of yoga on brain activity 

Reviewing the research on yoga's effect on brain activity, a heterogeneity of definitions of yoga and yoga practitioners, study designs, control stimuli, as well as measurement tools can be identified (Gothe et al., 2019; Merlet et al., 2024) and will be exemplarily presented in this paper. Aware that the scope of this paper cannot do justice to the full complexity of this topic, the aim of this work is to provide a brief overview of recent research on the effects of different practices of yoga on brain activity. For clarity, the studies presented here will be subdivided into the chapters of brain structure, functional brain activation and connectivity and brain frequencies.

2.1  Brain structure  

A study from 2019 by Garner and colleagues tested changes in grey matter (GM) density with longitudinal magnetic resonance therapy (MRI) in the form of voxel-based-morphometric (VBM) analysis before and after a 10- week intervention of 75 minutes weekly practice of Hatha Yoga.  This practice included body movements, meditation and breathing exercises in yoga-naive subjects (Garner et al., 2019). Their study results showed a significant increase in grey matter density in the right hippocampus over time in the yoga group compared to a decreased GM density over time in their sport control group. An increase in grey matter density refers to a higher concentration of neuronal cell bodies, dendrites and unmyelinated axons (measured by VBM), which implies a greater number of synaptic connections between neurons and therefore enhanced neural processing capacity in a certain area of the brain (Mercadante & Tadi, 2024). The increase of GM density in the right hippocampus specifically is associated with an improved adult neurogenesis (Garner et al., 2019), emotion regulation, learning, spatial orientation, memory consolidation and stress regulation (Garner et al., 2019; Gothe et al., 2018). The findings of this study are in alignment with a mindfulness study that showed an increase in brain grey matter density in the hippocampus due to a mindfulnessbased stress reduction intervention (Hölzel et al., 2011). 

In addition to grey matter density the grey matter volume, which is defined as the total amount of grey matter of a specific brain area, can be measured (Gothe et al., 2018). An increase in volume in a brain area indicates the related growth in the neural or glial cells. A greater grey matter volume and functioning therefore improves brain functioning and health, as the plaque that can build up in the grey matter can lead to severe memory loss known as dementia or Alzheimer's disease, and the decline of neurons in grey matter leads to the control of fine motor skills as well as the shaking in Parkinson's disease (Mercadante & Tadi, 2024). Gothe and colleagues measured the differences of the grey matter volume of the hippocampus, thalamus and caudate nucleus in experienced yoga practitioners (n=13) (with more than three years of regular yoga practice) and controls (n=13) with fMRI (Gothe et al., 2018). Their results showed a greater grey matter volume in the left hippocampus in experienced yoga practitioners compared to their control group and no differences in the thalamus and caudate nucleus (Gothe et al., 2018). A greater GM volume in the hippocampus indicates a more enhanced neural connectivity in the brain area which is involved in learning, memory processes and adult neurogenesis (Gothe et. Al., 2018). These findings suggest as well that a regular yoga practice improves brain activity and health and has neuroprotective effects for age- related cognitive declines and neurodegenerative diseases (such as dementia and Alzheimer's disease).  Kause Sorio and colleagues' study findings suggest that a 12- week intervention of Kundalini Yoga and Kriya offers better neuroprotective effects for women at risk for Alzheimer's disease compared to a 12-week intervention of memory enhancement training (Krause Sorio et al., 2022). A greater decrease in GM volume was seen in MRI in the control group of memory training than in the yoga group, which showed a preserved grey matter volume across the brain due to the yoga intervention (Krause Sorio et al., 2022).

2.2  Functional brain activation and connectivity

Gothe and colleagues investigated the brain activation during the Sternberg memory task in experienced yoga practitioners compared to their control group in the same study from 2018 (Gothe et al., 2018). The Sternberg memory task is a cognitive task designed to study the processes of memory (Gothe et al., 2018). Through fMRI scans recorded during the task, the encoding, maintenance and retrieval processes of the working memory with their specific brain activation could be measured (Gothe et al., 2018). The fMRI scans showed less activation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in the experienced yoga practitioners compared to the control group during the encoding phase of the Sternberg memory task (Gothe et al., 2018). The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is activated when executive functions (especially in the encoding phase of verbal working memory tasks) are in use and is engaged more with an increasing task load (Gothe et al, 2018). Following it is to assume that experienced yoga practitioners in this study show less need to use the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex to perform the Sternberg working memory task indicating a higher efficiency in solving the task (Gothe et al., 2018). 

Furthermore, a cross-sectional trial investigated the functional connectivity in resting state with fMRI of Yoga practitioners (women above 60, practicing yoga, including pranayama, asana and meditation) minimum twice a week for at least 9 years) compared to matched yoga- naive control group (Santella et al., 2019). A higher correlation between the medial prefrontal cortex and the right angular gyrus of the yoga practitioners was found, compared to their control group (Santella et al., 2019). This greater intra-network anteroposterior brain functional connectivity of the default mode network (DMN) signifies enhanced cognitive integration and a higher baseline functional connectivity and efficiency in the DMN. While with aging often a decrease in resting state functional connectivity (and therefore less neuronal communication and decreased cognitive flexibility and ability) goes along, these study results suggests that yoga can even reverse this age-related impact on the brain (Gothe et al., 2019). 

2.3  Brain frequencies

Another way to measure the activity of the brain is to measure brain frequencies with the electroencephalogram (EEG). EEG is a non-invasive method that uses a cap with electrodes on the scalp of the proband to record voltage fluctuations resulting from ionic current flows within the neurons of the brain. This transmits the summed electrical potentials of neurons that fire together (Kora et al., 2021). Different brain frequencies can be distinguished through the recordings and after noise removal and feature extraction of the data (Kora et al., 2021). The different frequency bands are delta (1-4 Hz), theta (4-8 Hz), alpha (8-12 Hz), beta (12-30 Hz), and gamma (> 30 Hz) frequencies (Kora et al., 2021). 

Krishna and colleagues investigated the effect of heartfulness meditation on frontal electrical activities of the brain during baseline (5 min), mediation (10 min), transmission (10 min) and post meditation (5 min) of 4 meditation sessions with EEG power spectral density in 28 meditators and 33 nonmeditators as a control group (Krishna et al., 2022). The results showed highly statistically significant higher theta band power, very significant higher alpha band power, highly significant lower beta band power and significant lower delta band power in heartfulness meditators compared to the control group (Krishna et al., 2022). Higher theta band power is associated with light sleep, relaxation, memory building, meditative states and reduced anxiety (Desai et al., 2015; Kora et al., 2021). Higher alpha band power occurs during moderate levels of brain activity, a state of relaxed wakefulness and is correlated with a decreased degree of pain and discomfort and increased perception of calmness (Desai et al., 2015; Kora et al., 2021). Moreover, fast and accurate memory performance as well as word recognition in older adults and a better working memory are correlated with a higher alpha band activity (Desai et al., 2015; Kora et al., 2021). Additionally, a higher activity in theta and alpha frequency bands form the foundation for the brain to experience learning and cognitive performance as they play a vital role in the networking between the neurons (Desai et al., 2015; Kora et al., 2021). Lower beta frequency band power is related to less active thinking, alternes and active concentration (Desai et al., 2015; Kora et al., 2021). Delta band power are the slowest brain waves with a high amplitude in the slowest wave and are observed during deep, dreamless sleep or minimum self-conscious brain involvement (Kora et al., 2021). Sometimes this frequency can be observed in very deep meditative states but in the case of this study, a lower power in delta frequency was observed, which shows an awake awareness (Krishna et al., 2022). Their study findings indicate that the heartfulness meditation practice can result in a wakeful relaxation and can positively influence cognitive enhancement and therefore brain functioning (Krishna et al., 2022).

Although this study shows a positive effect of the meditative aspects of the yoga practice on brain health, it must be considered that the different brain frequency activation measured during meditation or at resting state is highly dependent on the meditation style practiced in different studies (Stapelton et al., 2020) as well as on the meditation experience of the probands (Merlet et al., 2024). A recent review highlights data showing a consistent increase in theta and gamma brain wave activity in experienced meditators during meditation (Merlet et al., 2024). Gamma frequencies are involved in conscious attention and synchronization of neuronal activity and associated with an expanded consciousness, insight and a peak focus (Kora et al., 2021). In meditation novices the trend of studies shows an increase of alpha, theta and to some extant beta power, which aligns with the findings of Krishna and colleagues (Merlet et al., 2024). 

3  Discussion

The results of the studies shown in this paper about yoga's effect on brain activity suggest that a regular yoga practice can have a positive influence on brain structure (grey matter density and grey matter volume, hippocampal volume), brain connectivity and on the effectiveness of brain activation. In summary, the present studies indicate a protective effect on cognition and age-related diseases due to a regular yoga practice. Moreover, some studies suggest that yoga can even have a reversing effect on neurodegenerative declines (e.g. Santella et al., 2019). 

Reviewing the current research, it is important to consider the heterogeneity of the studies. Depending on the yoga practice being researched, differences in the definition of yoga and yoga practitioners, study design, control stimuli, and measurement tools can be identified. Some studies analyse the effects of a yoga practice that includes breathing exercises, physical exercises, and meditative aspects (e.g., Garner et al.), and consequently, they may not be able to specify which component of the practice is particularly responsible for the observed results. Since physical exercising alone as well as mindfulness exercises alone have been proven to positively influence brain health as well, it is of importance to distinguish which parts of the yoga practice specifically have which effects on the brain (Gothe et al., 2019). Therefore, studies investigating the effect of single aspects of the yoga practice (such as heartfulness meditation done by Krishna and colleagues) contribute to a more specific understanding of the different brain processes occurring as state or trait effects due to a specific aspect of a regular yoga practice. 

Future studies in this research area could control biases by implementing well-matched control groups, not only in terms of age, sex and physical fitness, but also on educational levels and intelligence. Additionally, the phase of the menstrual cycle in female participants should be taken into consideration, as it has been shown to influence the hippocampal volume and functional connectivity of the brain (Lisofsky et al., 2015). Moreover, biases in interventional studies could be reduced by randomly allocating participants to the groups instead of allowing them to choose their group by preference (as in Garner and colleagues’ study). Investigating the full spectrum of the individual effects of yoga on brain activity is challenging to investigate in group comparisons though, which is why, there is an urgent need for single case studies and longitudinal studies that are investigating specific effects of yoga on individuals over time. 

Research on yoga's effect on brain activity is crucial for designing specific yoga programs to support individuals in preserving and improving their cognitive abilities, brain health as well as overall wellbeing. Moreover, previous and future studies in this area help to build the scientific foundation for implementing yoga as a therapeutic tool in clinical settings to accompany treatments and rehabilitation for (age-related) cognitive impairments and neuropsychological disorders (Merlet et al., 2024; Nourollahimoghadam et al., 2021)

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I recently fell (uncontrolled) from a handstand into a wheel, which is fine if you have the right muscles activated, but I was tired and not fully present and I fell. My spine got compressed and I was running around (literally) with pain, pushing through though cause there was so much to be organised before leaving to Portugal to start a new job. I kept on practicing yoga (with handstands and backbends and all of that cause I love it) and also who am I even if I don’t do yoga? 

When going to a osteopath after 10 days of a still hurting spine, she told me, after the treatment of bringing every vertebra back to its place, to stop doing yoga for a week so that the spine can rest and reset after being compressed through the fall. I was immediately panicking inside, cause not being on the mat isn’t the easiest thing for me to do. But turned out it is exactly what my body and soul needed.

Simultaneously my coworker said to me: “in Columbia (where she is from) people still know how to do nothing, how to enjoy the sweetness of doing nothing. Just watch the ocean and don’t do anything else.” So after work I went to the ocean (without a book even), watched the waves and didn’t do anything else. And watching the waves roll in, I realised how exhausted I actually feel from the last years really. What a busy life I’ve created by studying my master, having a job at university for some time and building my own business at the same time. I was challenging myself over and over again, I was choosing to grow, to try new things and to keep on working for my dreams. And I loved that life, most of the times. But there were (as with everything in life) also downsides of being self employed and studying. Namely, a lot of stress and no clear boundaries of work and freetime (at all). I knew deep down in my heart I needed a change from that. I wasn’t used to doing nothing, the way my coworker described it. And my heart was craving it, my body and soul were in need of rest. 

So I decided to re-evaluate my priorities. And for the first time in years, I decided to prioritize myself over me in my profession as a yoga teacher. To prioritise sitting at the beach and watching the waves instead of reading a book to learn more about yoga (or anything else). To prioritize my heath and well-being before supporting others in theirs. Cause what is it worth if I don’t offer myself the same patience, time and rest that I am trying to bring into other peoples life as a yoga teacher? 

I am deciding to practice the sweetness of doing nothing. And that might even mean to step back from practicing yoga for a week at least. Cause that is yoga off the mat: to listen to your body and soul what  you really need and to give yourself permission to do that instead of continuing to do what you are used to do. My heart is craving for a little pause from teaching the classes I have been teaching the last 5 years (namely Hatha Flow and Vinyasa classes). And believe me, stepping a bit back from teaching these classes for a while is one of the hardest things for me. Because I love it so much. And at the same time my heart is telling me to take a pause from it, even if that’s the most challenging thing for me, or maybe exactly because that is the most challenging thing for me. 

I’m gonna rest to come back even clearer in my intention and spirit and more whole in my heart and own well-being. So if you might need to hear that as much as I do right now, here is a reminder for both of us: Don’t forget to prioritise your own heath and well-being, you only have one body in this life. 

Inneres Gleichgewicht und innere Ruhe sind Voraussetzung für das Ziel des Yoga der
Selbstverwirklichung (vgl. Kapitel 3.1). Die Sutras 1-16 in Patanjalis Yogasutra handeln
zunächst davon, was Yoga ist (1-4). In den Sutras 5-11 beschäftigt er sich mit den mentalen Mustern, (vrittis) und in den Sutras 12-16 mit der Praxis des Loslassens. Er beschreibt darin ebenfalls die, für den Yogaweg notwendige und zu lernende innere Ruhe des Bewusstseins (chitta) sowie den Weg, um diese erreichen zu können (vgl. Skuban 2011, S. 19 ff.). Direkt das zweite Sutra beschreibt das Ziel und den Weg des Yoga zugleich mit: „yogash chitta-vritti-nirodhah“ (Skuban 2011, S. 304), was übersetzt bedeutet: „Yoga ist das Zur-Ruhe-Kommen der dauernd sich verändernden mentalen Muster“ (Skuban 2011, S. 19). Wenn der Seher (die Person), in sich selbst ruht, ist dies Selbstverwirklichung (3. Sutra) (vgl. ebd., S. 20). Wenn das in sich selbst ruhen (Selbstverwirklichung) nicht vorhanden ist, „nimmt der Seher die Form der mentalen Muster an: Es scheint als wäre er identisch mit ihnen“ (Skuban 2011, S. 20). Diese Identifikation mit in uns aufziehenden und vergehenden Gedanken und Gefühlen sind, nach Patanjali, die Hauptursache für Ängste, Sorgen, Ärger und Zorn, kurz für alles empfundene Leid (vgl. ebd., S. 20 f.). Um diese Anhaftung, fälschliche Identifikation (denn nach Patanjali sind wir mehr als unsere Gedanken und Gefühle) sowie Abhängigkeiten von äußeren Umständen zu vermeiden oder zu verändern, bietet Yoga den Weg zur Loslösung (vairagya) in Form von Praxis/ Übungsmethoden (abhyasa) des achtgliedrigen Yogapfades an (vgl. Kapitel 3.1, vgl. ebd., S. 30 ff., vgl. Schwalbach 2016, S. 18). Der Weg zu innerer Ruhe und innerer Freiheit im Yoga bedeutet „nicht anhaften an den Dingen, die wir mögen oder nicht mögen“ (Skuban 2011, S. 31) und „ist ein Ausbrechen aus der Gefangenschaft äußerer Umstände“ (Skuban 2011, S. 31). Es geht beim Losgelöstsein (vairagya) auch darum, sich (mental) frei von äußeren Umständen zu machen, was in der heutigen Zeit beispielsweise auch die Umstände betrifft, welche stressauslösend in der modernen, sich stetig verändernden Leistungsgesellschaft sein können (vgl. Schwalbach 2016, S. 18 ff.). Der Yogaphilosophie zufolge soll also theoretisch durch die Yogapraxis ein Losgelöstsein (von eigenen Gedanken, Gefühlen und äußeren Umständen) erzeugt und damit Leid (zum Beispiel Ängste) verhindert und innere Ruhe sowie inneres Gleichgewicht ermöglicht werden. Genau dieser Zustand von innerer Ruhe und innerem Gleichgewicht gilt als hilfreiche Voraussetzung, um nachhaltige Lernerfahrungen machen zu können (vgl. Kapitel 2.4).

Praktisch ist diese ausgleichende Wirkung des Yoga mittlerweile in vielen unterschiedlichen wissenschaftlichen Studien untersucht und die beruhigende und entspannende Wirkung des Yoga auf Geist und Körper (was zu weniger Stress und Angst führt) mehrfach nachgewiesen worden (vgl. Broad 2013, S.125 ff.). Das Stressniveau von Menschen kann unter anderem durch die Abnutzung von deren Telomeren gemessen werden und die wissenschaftlichen Forschungen der letzten Jahrzehnte (vor allem von Elizabeth Blackburn, welche den Nobelpreis für ihre Forschungsergebnisse über Telomerase erhielt) haben erstaunliche Erkenntnisse in Zusammenhang mit der Wirkung des Yoga auf Stress und die Abnutzung der Telomere gewinnen können (vgl. ebd., S. 80 ff., vgl. Abrams/ Lama/ Tutu 2019, S. 113 ff.).
Telomere sind DNA- Segmente am Chromosomen-Ende und werden bei jeder Zellteilung kürzer (vgl. Broad 2013, S. 80 ff.). Deshalb kann das Telomerase- Niveau auch als biologische Uhr fungieren (vgl. ebd.). Jedoch hat die Wissenschaft herausgefunden, dass sich die Telomere bei einigen Menschen langsamer verkürzen als bei anderen und diese Menschen somit, biologisch betrachtet, länger jung bleiben (vgl. ebd.). Das liegt daran, dass die Telomere in Folge von der Lebensweise und der körperlichen Gesundheit entweder schneller erodieren oder länger geschützt werden (vgl. ebd.). Ein Hauptfaktor für deren Erosion, neben der Ernährungsweise und Infektionen, ist chronischer seelischer Stress (vgl. ebd.). Durch Stressabbau kann die Abnutzung der Telomere verlangsamt werden. Dies ist insofern von nicht zu unterschätzender Bedeutung, als eine Verkürzung der Telomerlänge dazu führt, dass die alternden Zellen die Zellteilung einstellen (vgl. ebd.). Wenn also die Verkürzung der Telomerlänge durch Stressabbau verlangsamt wird, sind Zellen vor Alterung und Krankheit besser geschützt (vgl. Abrams/ Lama/ Tutu 2019, S. 113 ff.) Somit kann Stressabbau die biologische Uhr verlangsamen (vgl. Broad 2013, S. 82 ff.). Die Psychologin Elissa Epel hat gemeinsam mit der Molekularbiologin Elizabeth Blackburn herausgefunden, dass nicht nur Stress, sondern ebenfalls allgemein gedankliche Muster Einfluss auf die Abnutzung der Telomere haben (vgl. Abrams/ Lama/ Tutu 2019, S. 113 ff.). „Epel und Blackburn ziehen daraus den Schluss, dass unsere Zellen, „unseren Gedanken zuhören“ (Abrams/ Lama/ Tutu 2019, S. 114). Dean Ornish, der in Harvard zum Arzt ausgebildet wurde, leitete gemeinsam mit Elizabeth Blackburn an der University of California in San Francisco eine Studie, welche die Wirkungen von Yoga auf das Telomerase- Niveau und weitere körperliche und psychologische Effekte untersuchte (vgl. Broad 2013, S. 82). In der Ornish-Studie wurden die Werte von 24 Männern (im Alter zwischen 50 und 80 Jahren) vor und nach der dreimonatigen Durchführung von jeweils einstündigem Yogaunterricht an sechs Tagen pro Woche gemessen (vgl. ebd.). Die Ende 2008 veröffentlichten Ergebnisse zeigten deutlich gesunkene Cholesterin- und Blutdruckwerte und ein um 30 Prozent gesunkenes Telomerase- Niveau (vgl. ebd.). Ebenso wurden gesunkene Werte bei Indikatoren von emotionalem Stress (beunruhigende Gedanken) festgestellt (vgl. ebd.).Yoga kann demnach durch seine beruhigende Wirkung das Stressniveau und auch das Telomerase- Niveau verringern und so die biologische Uhr der Menschen verlangsamen und Langlebigkeit fördern (vgl. ebd., S. 80 ff.). Der Zustand der Homöostase, des inneren Gleichgewichts, welcher für nachhaltiges Lernen notwendig ist, wird durch das autonome Nervensystem reguliert (vgl. Kapitel 2.4). Das autonome Nervensystem setzt sich aus dem sympathischen Nervensystem (Sympathikus) und dem parasympathischen Nervensystem (Parasympathikus) zusammen (vgl. ebd., S. 142 ff.). Der Sympathikus ist für die Aktivierung des Körpers zuständig, durch ihn wird die Kampf- oder Flucht Reaktion (fight or flight) des Körpers aktiviert, was vor allem in früheren Zeiten und bei akuter (Lebens-)Gefahr lebenserhaltend wirkte (vgl. ebd.). Heute sind unsere Feinde in der Regel keine Säbelzahntiger mehr, jedoch aktivieren Stress und Angst (beispielsweise bei Leistungsdruck oder Angst vor Jobverlust) das sympathische Nervensystem des Körpers ebenfalls (vgl. Abrams/ Lama/ Tutu 2019, S. 113 ff.). Durch diesen Modus werden Verdauungsvorgänge gehemmt, Hormone (wie etwa Adrenalin) ausgeschüttet und die Körperfunktionen erhöht, die ein schnelles Handeln (Kämpfen oder Fliehen) ermöglichen, indem sie beispielsweise Blut zu den Muskeln transportieren (vgl. Broad, 2013, S. 142 f.). Der Sympathikus ist damit quasi „das Gaspedal des Körpers“ (Broad 2013, S. 142). Als Gegenspieler dazu ist der Parasympathikus eher die Bremse des Körpers, er ist verantwortlich dafür, die Nerven zu beruhigen und für Entspannung zu sorgen (vgl. ebd.). Er fährt den Adrenalinfluss wieder herunter, fördert die Nahrungsaufnahme und Verdauungsfunktionen sowie die Ruhefunktionen des Körpers (vgl. ebd.). Wenn beide Teile des autonomen Nervensystems „zusammenarbeiten, steuern sie den allgemeinen Energiefluss des Körpers, der eine [Sympathikus] sorgt für Verbrauch, der andere [Parasympathikus] für die Bewahrung“ (Broad 2013, S. 142). Dies führt zu einem Zustand des inneren Gleichgewichts, in welchem Lernen möglich ist (vgl. Kapitel 2.4). Die Aktivierung des sympathischen Nervensystems „ist von der Natur als seltener, kurzfristiger Zustand geplant. Doch bei vielen Menschen in der modernen Welt hält diese Reaktion permanent an.“ (Abrams/ Lama/ Tutu 2019, S. 113). Auf Grund des stressauslösenden Leistungsdrucks und „kollektiven Beschäftigungswahn[s]“ (Trökes/ Knothe 2014, S. 229) der modernen Leistungsgesellschaft (vgl. Kapitel 2.5.1), ist der Sympathikus somit häufig übererregt und das autonome Nervensystem des Menschen dadurch nicht im Gleichgewicht (vgl. Kapitel 2.4). Hinzu kommt, dass das sympathische Nervensystem leicht erregbar ist und der „Körper, wenn er sich selbst überlassen wird, immer das Gaspedal bevorzugt“ (Broad 2013, S. 143). Das autonome Nervensystem kann jedoch nicht nur von Umweltbedingungen beeinflusst werden, sondern auch durch bewusste Aktionen, wie beispielsweise bestimmte Muskelarbeit (Muskeltonus) und Atmung (Atmungsrate) gezielt angesteuert werden (vgl. ebd., S. 146). Durch Yoga können beide Seiten des autonomen Nervensystems (Sympathikus und Parasympathikus) bewusst (an)gesteuert und reguliert werden (vgl. ebd., S. 143 ff.). Je nach Yoga- Stil, Körperstellungen in der Praxis (asana) und ausgewählten Atemübungen (pranayama) können sowohl das sympathische, als auch das parasympathische Nervensystem angesprochen werden (vgl. ebd., S. 147 ff.). Dadurch kann die Yogapraxis entweder aktivierend oder beruhigend wirken (vgl. ebd.). Fließende, dynamische Yogastile mit starker Muskelbeanspruchung (wie beispielsweise Ashtanga Yoga), sowie eine beschleunigte Atmung wirken stimulierend auf das sympathische System, während Yogastile mit Betonung auf statische Stellungen (wie beispielsweise das Yoga Iyengars) als auch eine Verlangsamung der Atmung, das parasympathische System aktivieren (vgl. ebd., S. 147 f.). Die asana des Schulterstandes wirkt beispielsweise auf den Parasympathikus, denn, ausgelöst durch die Körperstellung (Kinn auf den oberen Brustbereich drückend, welches sich auf die Halsschlagadern auswirkt), übernimmt sie die Rolle eines Blutdrucksenkers, eine der wichtigsten Funktionen des autonomen Nervensystems (vgl. ebd., S. 144 ff.). Broad hält in Bezug auf den renommierten Yogalehrer Robin fest, dass zu jeder Yogapraxis die bewusste Ansteuerung des Sympathikus (Gaspedal des Körpers) als auch des Parasympathikus (Bremse des Körpers) dazugehören, um das autonome System zu trainieren (vgl. ebd., S. 149). Den positiven Effekt der Einflussnahme des Yoga auf bewusste Steuerung von Sympathikus und Parasympathikus beschreibt Broad nach Robin wie folgt: „Durch die dadurch gewonnene energetische Flexibilität überwinde man die üblichen Bedingungen des Stoffwechsellebens und entwickle neue Fähigkeiten, um Zustände innerer Ausgewogenheit und Harmonie zu erreichen“ (Broad 2013, S. 149). Und genau dieser, durch Yoga erreichte Zustand innerer Ausgewogenheit und Harmonie (Homöostase), ist es, welcher nachhaltiges Lernen ermöglicht (vgl. Kapitel 2.4). Abgesehen von der Aktivierung des parasympathischen Nervensystems ist in der Wissenschaft ein biochemischer Faktor bekannt, welcher direkt das „zur Ruhe kommen“ der Gedanken fördert (vgl. ebd., S. 293 f.). Der Neurotransmitter Gamma-Aminobuttersäure (kurz GABA) hat eine beruhigende Wirkung auf Körper und Geist (vgl. ebd.). Durch die Ausschüttung von GABA werden die Gedanken direkt beruhigt, da dadurch die neuronale Aktivität im Gehirn verlangsamt wird, indem die Neuronen in einen weniger erregbaren Zustand versetzt werden (vgl. ebd.). Durch das Depressivum Alkohol wird das Denken verlangsamt, indem Äthylalkohol mit Neuronen bindet und damit eine chemische Umgebung schafft, welche die entspannende Wirkung von GABA verstärkt (vgl. ebd.). Neben Alkohol wurde eine weitere Möglichkeit gefunden, welche auf direktem Wege den GABA Wert erhöht und dabei nicht die unangenehmen Nebenwirkungen des Alkoholkonsums aufweist (vgl. ebd.). Auch das Praktizieren von Yoga führt nachweislich dazu, dass der GABA Spiegel ansteigt (sich bis zu verdoppeln kann) und damit direkt eine beruhigende Wirkung und die Verlangsamung der Gedanken auslöst (vgl. ebd.). Das Ergebnis einer regelmäßigen Yogapraxis beschreibt Broad infolgedessen wie folgt: „ein Gefühl des körperlichen und mentalen Ruhigwerdens, der zunehmenden Entspannung und abnehmenden Angst“ (Broad 2013, S. 294).

Literatur:

Abrams, Douglas/ Desmond, Tutu/ Lama, Dalai (2019): Das Buch der Freude. 2. Auflage.
München

Broad, William J. (2013): The Science of Yoga. Was es verspricht- und was es kann.
Freiburg im Breisgau

Schwalbach, Michael (2016): Yoga und Meditation für Führungskräfte. Einführung in
die uralte Weisheitslehre Yoga für eine bessere Führungsqualität. Wiesbaden.

Skuban, Ralph (2011): Patanjalis Yogasutra. Der Königsweg zu einem weisen Leben. 4.
Auflage. München

Trökes, Anna/ Knothe, Bettina (2014): Neuro- Yoga. Wie die alte Weisheitspraxis auf
unser Gehirn wirkt. München

Immer wieder werde ich gefragt, ob ich gute Bücher zum Thema Yoga empfehlen kann. Das Thema Yoga ist so weit und gleichzeitig tief, dass es weniger ein Buch zu allem was Yoga umfasst geben kann, sondern vielmehr verschiedene Bücher zu unterschiedlichen Aspekten und Unterthemen des Yoga zu finden sind. Hier findest du eine Auswahl verschiedener Bücher, die ich empfehlen kann, um sich tiefer mit Aspekten des Yoga auseinanderzusetzen:

• Patanjalis Yogasutra - Ralph Skuban

Wenn es jedoch ein Buch geben sollte, das Yoga als Ganzes beschreibt, dann ist es mit Sicherheit Patanjalis Yogasutra. Dieses Buch umfasst die erste geschlossene Abhandlung über den Begriff Yoga, welche etwa 325 bis 425 nach Christus von Patanjali verfasst wurde. Die insgesamt 195 Sutras (Aphorismen) in vier Kapiteln sind in der indischen Sprache Sanskrit verfasst und wurden später von verschiedenen Autoren in andere Sprachen übersetzt und mit Kommentaren zur möglichen Interpretation der Sutras versehen, da die Sutras ohne Vorwissen kaum zu verstehen sind. Heute gilt Patanjalis Werk als die Quintessenz des Yoga. Wer in dieser Schrift jedoch nach Anleitungen zu Yoga asanas (=Yoga Haltungen) sucht, wird hier nicht fündig. Der Sinn des ursprünglichen Yoga, waren nie Körperhaltungen. Diese sind nur ein kleiner Bestandteil des Yoga Weges, um den Körper auf die Meditation vorzubereiten. Dementsprechend wird in diesem Buch der Fokus auf den Yogaweg in traditioneller Hinsicht gerichtet und es handelt sich dabei eher um einen philosophischen Text der Anleitung, welcher die vielschichtigen (mentalen) Prozesse des Yoga beschreibt.

• The Science of Yoga. Was es verspricht - und was es kann - William J. Broad

William Braod ist mit dem Pulitzer-Preis ausgezeichneter Wissenschaftsjournalist und das merkt man seinem Buch, geprägt ist von umfangreichen Recherchen und seinem eloquenten Schreibstil, an. Ich bin großer Fan von diesem Buch! Broad gibt einen umfangreichen und dabei übersichtlichen Einblick über die bis dato erschienene wissenschaftliche Forschung hinsichtlich verschiedener Aspekte des Yoga. Darunter unter anderem die bisher erforschte Wirkung von Yoga auf Gesundheit, Stimmungen, das Verletzungsrisiko, Heilung, Sex und Muse. Broad setzt sich dabei kritisch mit diversen Kontroversen im Yoga, wie beispielsweise der Behauptung von der Erreichung übernatürlicher Fähigkeiten durch Yoga und das Verletzungsrisiko verschiedener Yogaformen auseinander. Mir persönlich gefällt die neutral- wissenschaftsbasierte Auseinandersetzung mit der spirituellen Praxis des Yoga dabei sehr. Für mich einer der besten Bücher, um einen ersten Überblick über die (Aus-)Wirkungen des Yoga zu bekommen. Hinzuzufügen ist an dieser Stelle jedoch, dass das Buch 2013 erschienen ist und somit natürlich nur Forschungen, die bis dato veröffentlicht wurden, beinhalten kann. In dem letzten Jahrzehnt ist jedoch vermutlich ungefähr die Menge an Yoga-Forschungen zusammengetragen wurden, wie in den ganzen Jahrzehnten davor zusammen. Dementsprechend ist dieses Buch nicht auf dem neusten Stand wissenschaftlicher Erkenntnisse.

• Neuro- Yoga. Wie die alte Weisheitspraxis auf unser Gehirn wirkt - Anna Trökes, Bettina Knothe

Anna Trökes als erfahrene Yoga-Lehrerin und die Neurowissenschaftlerin Bettina Knothe beschreiben in ihrem Buch welche Auswirkungen Yoga (Körperübungen, Atemübungen und Mediation) jeweils auf verschiedene Gehirnregionen hat. Sehr anschaulich und leicht verständlich erklären sie die neurologischen Prozesse, welche durch Yoga stimuliert werden. Wer an den neurologischen Abläufen hinter einer verbesserten Konzentration und Gedächtnis, emotionalem Gleichgewicht und Stressreduktion, die eine regelmäßige Yogapraxis nachgewiesenerweise erzielen, interessiert ist, für den/diejenige ist dieses Buch genau das Richtige. Das Buch gibt einen wunderbaren ersten Überblick über die Zusammenhänge von Yogapraxis und Gehirnprozessen und bietet dabei eine angenehme Kombination aus Recherchen von wissenschaftlicher Forschung und praktischen Anleitungen für Lesende.

• Yin Yoga. Principles and Pracitce - Paul Grilley

Paul Grilley als Vater des YinYoga, welcher maßgeblich dazu beigetragen hat, YinYoga dem Westen zugänglich zu machen gibt mit diesem Buch eine Einführung in die Prinzipien des YinYoga. Besonders spannend finde ich an diesem Buch, dass er die Prinzipien des (Yin)Yoga mit den Prinzipien der traditionellen chinesischen Medizin vergleicht und hiermit eine Verbindung zwischen zwei Traditionen (Yoga/Ayurveda und TCM) herstellt, die andere Wörter nutzen, aber auf den gleichen Prinzipien aufbauen. Er geht in seinem Buch auf die Bedeutung von Yin und Yang, die Meridiantheorie und die Anatomie des Bindegewebes ein und schafft es dabei das Wichtigste auf den Punkt zu bringen und sich kurz zu halten. Das Buch umfasst die Abbildung und Beschreibung unterschiedlicher Yin Yoga Positionen und Meditationspraktiken. Insgesamt würde ich das Buch keinen Yoga- Anfängerinnen empfehlen, sondern eher Praktizierenden, die die feinschichtigeren Ebenen ihrer Yogapraxis tiefergehend verstehen, erkunden und erweitern wollen.

• Breath. The new science of a lost art - James Nestor

Dieses Buch ist nicht direkt ein Buch über Yoga, sondern über Atmung. Da Atmung und Atempraktiken (pranayama) aber eine zentrale Rolle in der Yogapraxis einnimmt und das Buch auch auf Yoga Atemtechniken eingeht, würde ich es zu Yogaliteratur zählen.

Nestor nimmt die Lesenden in seinem Buch mit auf eine Reise durch seine eigene Geschichte der Erkundung der Atmung, die über traditionellen Atemtechniken des Yoga bis hin zu modernen wissenschaftlichen Entdeckungen reicht. Dabei beschreibt er die Auswirkungen, welche unsere Atmung auf unsere körperliche und mentale Gesundheit hat. Für alle, die unter Atemproblemen, Stress oder Schlafproblemen (Schnarchen etc.) leiden, kann dieses Buch mit Sicherheit sehr aufschlussreich und hilfreich sein. Darüber hinaus kann es von großem Potential sein, sich als atmender Mensch mit dieser oft unterschätzten Funktion unseres Körpers bewusst auseinanderzusetzen. Nestor erklärt Forschungsergebnisse, die aufzeigen wie eine bewusste und richtige Atmung unsere körperlichen und mentalen Fähigkeiten, Schlafqualität und Stimmungen positiv beeinflussen kann und gibt hilfreiche Tipps für eine bewusstere und umfangreiche Atmung. Für mich ist Nestors Buch ein must-read für jede*n, der/die die Auswirkungen der Atmung, auch in Bezug auf Yoga, besser verstehen möchte.

Ich hoffe in dieser Liste an Literatur ist etwas für dich dabei, was dich anspricht zu lesen. Ich wünsche dir ganz viel Spaß beim Eintauchen in die Praktiken, Wirkweisen und verschiedenen Aspekte des Yoga! Falls du ein Buch hiervon liest, gib mir gerne bescheid, wie es die gefallen hast und falls du Literaturtipps für mich hast, immer gerne her damit! 🙂

Die erste Erwähnung von Yoga fand circa 2500- 1000 vor Christus in den sogenannten Veden statt. Die Veden sind die ältesten und heiligsten Schriftensammlungen der in Indien entstandenen Kultur, des Hinduismus. Begriffsdefinition und Inhalt des Yoga haben sich über die Zeit stark verändert, sodass man sagen kann, dass Yoga selbst verschiedene Phasen durchlebt hat.  

In der ersten vedischen Phase, welche bis etwa 200 vor Christus datiert ist, bedeutete Yoga vorwiegend Ethik und religiöse Spiritualität mit Gebeten, Meditationen und Opfergaben zum Zwecke der Befreiung aus dem Diesseits. Die darauffolgende klassische Phase des Yoga war geprägt von Spiritualität und der Gesundheit des Geistes durch Meditation. Die tantrische Phase, auch Hatha genannt, ab etwa 500 nach Christus, stellte ebenfalls Spiritualität und Gesundheit in den Mittelpunkt des Yoga, in Ergänzung durch pranayama, der bewussten Atemkontrolle. Die Moderne Phase des Yoga ab circa 1930 stellte daraufhin, neben Gebeten, Meditationen und pranayama, vor allem die asanas (Körperübungen) und Vinyasa (Yogastil, der Atem und Bewegung fließend verbindet) in den Vordergrund, mit dem Ziel sowohl Fitness und Gesundheit als auch Heilung und Spiritualität zu erlangen. Diese moderne Phase des Yoga ist vor allem durch die indische Unabhängigkeitsbewegung und den Neu-Hinduismus entstanden (vgl. Broad 2013, S. 56 ff.). Als in Indien eine „Welle des Nationalismus versuchte, den Hinduismus als Grundlage der indischen Nationalidentität wiederzubeleben und zu modernisieren“ (Broad 2013, S. 56), war Yoga mit seinen alten Wurzeln (bis in die vedische Phase hinein) für dieses Bestreben eine große Hoffnung (vgl. ebd.). Jedoch sollte sich die Aufmachung von Yoga für diesen Zweck komplett erneuern, weg von Magie, Erotik und Esoterik (Tantra) und hin zu einem neuen Ansehen des Yoga, das „Wissenschaftlichkeit und Hygiene, Gesundheit und Fitness ausstrahlte“ (Broad 2013, S. 57 ff.). 

Im Laufe der Geschichte des Yoga haben sich vier verschiedene Wege des Yoga herauskristallisiert, welche alle dasselbe Ziel haben, nämlich die Selbstverwirklichung und Vereinigung mit der Quelle allen Seins, oft auch als „Einheitszustand“ beschrieben. Die vier verschiedenen Wege werden unterschieden als: Bhakti Yoga (Yoga der Liebe und Hingabe), Karma Yoga (Yoga des selbstlosen Handelns), Jnana Yoga (Yoga des Wisssens und der Erkenntnis), sowie Raja Yoga (auch Kriya Yoga genannt, das Yoga der Geistesbeherrschung). Letzteres wird unterteilt in: Hatha Yoga (Yoga der Körperstellungen) und Kundalini Yoga (Yoga der Energieerweckung und Energielenkung). Alle dieser vier Ausprägungen gelten als gleichbedeutsam.

Einer der einflussreichsten Schriften für das moderne Yoga ist Patanjalis Yogasutra, als erste geschlossene Abhandlung über den Begriff Yoga, welche etwa 325 bis 425 nach Christus (in der klassischen Phase des Yoga) von Patanjali verfasst wurde. Die insgesamt 195 Sutras (Aphorismen) in vier Kapiteln sind in der indischen Sprache Sanskrit verfasst und wurden später von verschiedenen Autoren in andere Sprachen übersetzt und mit Kommentaren zur möglichen Interpretation der Sutras versehen, da die Sutras ohne Vorwissen kaum zu verstehen sind. Heute gilt Patanjalis Werk als die Quintessenz des Yoga, in welchem er den Weg eines Übenden zur Erleuchtung und Selbstverwirklichung, zu samadhi als Ziel, beschreibt. Wegweisend hierfür ist der achtgliedrige Pfad des Yoga. Die acht Stufen auf dem Weg zu diesem Ziel sind: 1. Disziplin (yama), 2. Beherrschung (niyama), 3. Körperstellung (asana), 4. Atemkontrolle (pranayama), 5. Sinnesrückzug (pratyahara), 6. Konzentration (dharana), 7. Meditation (dhyana) und 8. Ekstase (samadhi) (vgl. Skuban 2011). Sinnesrückzug und Konzentration münden in Meditation, welche wiederrum in der Ekstase (samadhi) münden kann (vgl. ebd., S. 162). 

Das Ziel und der Zustand des Yoga zugleich können als das Gefühl von Einheit in Folge von Klarheit und Ruhe beschrieben werden. Das zweite Sutra Patanjalis „yogash chitta-vritti-nirodhah“, übersetzt als „Yoga ist das Zur-Ruhe-Kommen (nirodhah) der dauernd sich verändernden mentalen Muster (chitta-vritti)“ (Skuban 2011, S. 19) und weiter: „Dann ruht der Seher in sich selbst: Dies ist Selbst- Verwirklichung“ (Skuban 2011, S. 20) beschreibt den im Yoga angestrebten mentalen Zustand der Klarheit, Ruhe und Einheit. Insgesamt können die verschiedenen Yoga Wege und der achtgliedrige Pfad des Yoga als umfassende Übungspraxis auf körperlicher, emotionaler und geistig- mentaler Ebene verstanden werden.

Literatur:

Broad, William J. (2013): The Science of Yoga. Was es verspricht- und was es kann. Freiburg im Breisgau 

Skuban, Ralph (2011): Patanjalis Yogasutra. Der Königsweg zu einem weisen Leben. 4. Auflage. München

Meine erste Yogastunde habe ich mit etwa 18 Jahren in meinem damaligen „Kinderzimmer“ gemacht und zwar mit einer auf CD aufgenommenen Yogastunde. Die CD hatte ich aus einer meiner Fitnesszeitschriften und als ich sie in meinen Laptop geschoben hatte (ja, damals gab es noch CD Abspieler in Laptops!) startete der Power Yoga Flow. Ich mochte es und probierte mich von da an sporadisch an verschiedenen YouTube Yoga Videos aus.  Schnell merkte ich, dass die Videos mir zwar Spaß machten, sich die Yogahaltungen aber nicht immer richtig ausgerichtet anfühlten und damit wuchs der Wunsch in mir tiefer in die Anatomie des Yoga einzutauchen. Daraufhin besuchte ich Yogaklassen in Yoga Studios und entschied mich relativ schell dazu eine Yogalehrerin Ausbildung zu machen, mit dem Hintergedanken meine eigene Praxis zu erweitern. Yoga selbst zu unterrichten war zu dem Zeitpunkt des Ausbildungsstartes absolut keine Option.

Mit relativ wenig Yogaerfahrung „stolperte“ ich also 2019 in meine erste 200 Stunden Yoga Ausbildung, neugierig und nicht ahnend was sich damit alles für mich verändern würde. Ich entschied mich für eine Ausbildung in meiner Heimatstadt Mainz, die an Wochenenden stattfand. Somit konnte ich die Ausbildung während meinem Studiums und meines Jobs absolvieren.

Die Ausbildung selbst war herausfordernd in vielen Hinsichten. Sie war körperlich fordernd, weil ich zu dem Zeitpunkt absolute Beginnerin war und viele andere Teilnehmer*innen schon jahrelange intensive Yoga- Erfahrung mitbrachten. Vor allem aber war sie emotional herausfordernd, weil ich durch den schlimmsten Liebeskummer (hoffentlich meines Lebens, we will see) gegangen bin und oft nicht wusste wo mir der Kopf und das Herz standen. Tiefer in die körperlichen, aber vor allem auch mentalen und spirituellen Strukturen des Yoga einzutauchen während mein Herz voller Liebeskummer war, hat mich innerlich quasi aufgebrochen. Auf eine gute Art und Weise, kann ich im Nachhinein sehen. Damals war es in erster Linie oft aufwühlend. An dieser Stelle also keine „happy Teacher Training sunshine story“. Ich habe bisher in meinem Leben noch nie so viel geweint wie in der Zeit dieser Ausbildung. Meine Ausbilderin hat damals zu uns gesagt „wer noch nie beim/ nach dem Yoga geweint hat, hat Yoga noch nicht wirklich erfahren“. Und ich denke da ist etwas Wahres daran, denn wenn wir bereit sind uns von Yoga auf allen und auch tieferen Ebenen berühren zu lassen, dann setzt dies etwas in Bewegung, dann verändert sich etwas. Dann berührt es uns tief in unseren Emotionen und unserem Sein. Dann kann uns Yoga Heilung bringen. 

So bin ich also durch das Teacher Training gegangen, wissbegierig und neugierig, sog alle Informationen wie ein Schwamm auf, begeisterte mich immer mehr für die vielen Facetten dieser langbewährten Tradition und Philosophie. Meine ersten Versuche im Rahmen der Ausbildung zu unterrichten waren so holprig und ungalant, dass ich froh war das Teacher Training nur für meine eigene Praxis zu durchlaufen. Doch mit der Zeit wurde ich sicherer und es machte Stück für Stück mehr Spaß die Leidenschaft, die ich so schnell für Yoga entwickelte, durch das Unterrichten in unserer Ausbildungsgruppe weiterzugeben. Unsere Lehrerin motivierte uns stark mit dem Unterrichten anzufangen, uns zu trauen, und gab mir das Feedback, dass ich dafür losgehen sollte, dass ich Yoga unterrichten sollte. Und so kam es dann schnell, dass ich noch während der Ausbildung meine ersten offenen Yogastunden vertretungsweise unterrichtete und schnell wurde mir meine eigene feste Stunde im Yogastudio angeboten. Ich habe schon immer gerne unterrichtet, habe Erwachsenenbildung studiert und Tutoriumskuse an der Uni unterrichtet, hätte aber bis zu diesem Zeitpunkt nie gedacht, dass ich Yogalehrerin werden würde und es mir so viel Freude und Erfüllung schenken würde.

Die Liebe zu Yoga war damit entfacht, mein Liebeskummer wurde langsam besser und ich spürte schnell, dass dies erst der Anfang einer langen (Yoga) Reise sein würde.